United States of America v. Alvin Beasley

In the
United States Court of Appeals
For the Seventh Circuit
____________________
No. 23-2489
U NITED STATES OF A MERICA,
Plaintiff-Appellee,
v.
A LVIN BEASLEY ,
Defendant-Appellant.
____________________
Appeal from the United States District Court for the
Central District of Illinois
No. 20-cr-20009 — Colin S. Bruce, Judge.
____________________
A RGUED NOVEMBER 3, 2025 — DECIDED D ECEMBER 19, 2025
____________________
Before ST. EVE, JACKSON -A KIWUMI , and M ALDONADO,
Circuit Judges.
ST. EVE, Circuit Judge. A jury convicted Alvin Beasley un-
der 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(1) of possessing a firearm as a convicted
felon after he shot a gun at his ex-girlfriend’s house while on
parole for a felony conviction. The district court, finding
Beasley had three prior convictions for violent crimes, sen-
tenced Beasley under the Armed Career Criminal Act

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2 No. 23-2489
(“ACCA”), 18 U.S.C. § 924(e), which imposes a fifteen-year
mandatory minimum.
Beasley argues his sentence violates his Fifth and Sixth
Amendment rights because a jury rather than a judge should
have made the fact-intensive determination of whether his
prior convictions occurred on “different occasions” under
ACCA. While Beasley’s appeal was pending, the Supreme
Court held in Erlinger v. United States, 602 U.S. 821, 835 (2024),
that the Fifth and Sixth Amendments require a jury to decide
whether previous offenses occurred on occasions different
from one another under ACCA. We agree with Beasley that
the sentencing court erred under Erlinger by declining to send
the different-occasions question to the jury but nevertheless
affirm because the error was harmless.
I. Background
On May 23, 2019, police responded to a “shots fired” call
at the home of Alvin Beasley’s ex-girlfriend in Danville, Illi-
nois. At the scene, police observed two bullet holes on the out-
side of the ex-girlfriend’s home and learned that a witness
saw a red Chevrolet Impala driving away immediately after
the gunshots sounded. As the police tracked down and tailed
the Impala, they saw someone toss a firearm out of its passen-
ger side. The officers conducted a traffic stop of the vehicle
and found Beasley sitting in the driver’s seat. Beasley, a con-
victed felon, could not lawfully possess a firearm.
A grand jury indicted Beasley, charging him with being a
felon in possession of a firearm in violation of § 922(g)(1). The
case went to trial in September 2021, and the jury returned a
verdict of guilty on the sole count of the indictment.

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No. 23-2489 3
In preparation for Beasley’s sentencing, probation pre-
pared a presentence investigation report (“PSR”) highlighting
three of Beasley’s prior felony convictions: an armed robbery
committed on March 21, 2004; an aggravated battery on June
11, 2005; and a second-degree murder on December 23, 2011.
Based on the PSR, probation determined Beasley qualified as
an armed career criminal and faced a mandatory minimum
term of fifteen years and up to life in prison under ACCA,
§ 924(e). The Sentencing Guidelines recommended a sentence
between 262 and 327 months in prison.
In a presentencing memorandum, Beasley acknowledged
the prior convictions and conceded two of the offenses oc-
curred over a year apart, on March 21, 2004, and June 11, 2005.
During a colloquy at his sentencing hearing, Beasley con-
firmed the 2004 and 2005 offense dates and further conceded
that the third offense occurred on December 23, 2011. Still,
Beasley objected to probation’s recommended mandatory
minimum sentence under ACCA. He argued that the Su-
preme Court’s decision in Wooden v. United States, 595 U.S. 360
(2022), requires extensive factfinding regarding whether prior
convictions occurred on occasions different from one another
and, pursuant to Alleyne v. United States, 570 U.S. 99 (2013),
and Apprendi v. New Jersey, 530 U.S. 466 (2000), it falls within
the province of the jury, not the court, to determine whether
his prior convictions trigger ACCA’s longer prison terms. The
district court overruled Beasley’s objection at sentencing
based on our court’s then-controlling precedent in United
States v. Hatley, 61 F.4th 536 (7th Cir. 2023), explaining “sepa-
rate occasions of prior offenses do not need to be alleged in
the indictment and found beyond a reasonable doubt by the
jury.” The judge determined the three predicate offenses

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4 No. 23-2489
occurred on different occasions and sentenced Beasley to 300
months’ imprisonment and five years’ supervised release.
Beasley appealed his sentence. While his appeal was pend-
ing, the Supreme Court handed down its decision in Erlinger,
which held that the Fifth and Sixth Amendments require
ACCA’s different-occasions element to be submitted to the
jury. 602 U.S. at 835.
II. Discussion
ACCA imposes a mandatory minimum sentence of fifteen
years’ imprisonment for a defendant convicted under
§ 922(g)(1) who also has three previous convictions for violent
felonies “committed on occasions different from one an-
other.” § 924(e)(1). This sentence enhancement also increases
the maximum statutory sentence from ten years under
§ 922(g) to life in prison under the enhancement.
Under Apprendi and Alleyne, the government must prove
to a jury beyond a reasonable doubt any sentencing factor—
other than the fact of a prior conviction—that increases a de-
fendant’s maximum or minimum penalty. Apprendi, 530 U.S.
at 490; Alleyne, 570 U.S. at 111–13. ACCA’s different-occasions
factor increases both the minimum and maximum penalties
facing defendants sentenced under that statute. And because
the different-occasions determination is an “intensely factual”
question requiring “examination of a ‘range’ of facts,” the in-
quiry goes beyond finding the fact of a prior conviction. Er-
linger, 602 U.S. at 828 (citing Wooden, 595 U.S. at 369). Thus,
building on Wooden in the context of Apprendi and Alleyne, the
Court in Erlinger held the Fifth and Sixth Amendments re-
quire a unanimous jury—not a court—to resolve the different-
occasions question beyond a reasonable doubt. Id.

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No. 23-2489 5
The government concedes that the district court erred un-
der Erlinger. We agree. The sentencing court, not the jury,
found that Beasley committed the three prior violent crimes
on different occasions. The different-occasions question was
neither charged in the indictment nor submitted to the jury.
And the different-occasions finding increased both the mini-
mum and maximum penalties beyond what the jury’s verdict
authorized. The firmly entrenched principles from Apprendi
and Alleyne, plus the newly articulated standard from Er-
linger, expressly prohibit this. No one disputes an error oc-
curred, nor could they.
At issue, then, is (1) whether we review the district court’s
error as a harmless error or a structural error and (2) if harm-
less error review applies, whether the error was harmless in
this case.
A. Standard of Review for Erlinger Errors
A preserved trial error is subject to harmless error analysis
unless it is a structural error necessitating automatic reversal.
Washington v. Recuenco, 548 U.S. 212, 218–19 (2006). We reject
Beasley’s suggestion that his Erlinger error is structural. In-
stead, we review the error for harmlessness, as every federal
circuit to address the issue has done.
The Supreme Court has “repeatedly recognized that the
commission of a constitutional error at trial alone does not en-
title a defendant to automatic reversal.” Recuenco, 548 U.S. at
218; Neder v. United States, 527 U.S. 1, 8 (1999); see also Arizona
v. Fulminante, 499 U.S. 279, 306 (1991); Chapman v. California,
386 U.S. 18, 22 (1967). Rather, “most constitutional errors can
be harmless.” Neder, 527 U.S. at 8 (quoting Fulminante, 499
U.S. at 306). “[I]f the defendant had counsel and was tried by

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6 No. 23-2489
an impartial adjudicator, there is a strong presumption that
any other [constitutional] errors that may have occurred are
subject to harmless-error analysis.” Id. (quoting Rose v. Clark,
478 U.S. 570, 579 (1986)).
Structural errors are “not subject to harmless-error analy-
sis because [they] ‘vitiate[] all the jury’s findings.’” Neder, 527
U.S. at 11 (quoting Sullivan v. Louisiana, 508 U.S. 275, 281
(1993)). Only in a “very limited class of cases” has the Court
found structural errors requiring automatic reversal. Johnson
v. United States, 520 U.S. 461, 468 (1997) (citing Gideon v. Wain-
wright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963) (complete denial of counsel); Tumey
v. Ohio, 273 U.S. 510 (1927) (biased trial judge); Vasquez v.
Hillery, 474 U.S. 254 (1986) (racial discrimination in selection
of grand jury); McKaskle v. Wiggins, 465 U.S. 168 (1984) (denial
of self-representation at trial); Waller v. Georgia, 467 U.S. 39
(1984) (denial of public trial); Sullivan, 508 U.S. 275 (defective
reasonable-doubt instruction in death penalty case)).
In contrast, “[e]rrors that ‘infringe upon the jury’s factfind-
ing role’ are ‘subject to harmless-error analysis.’” United States
v. Johnson, 114 F.4th 913, 917 (7th Cir. 2024) (quoting Neder,
527 U.S. at 18). Specifically, a district court’s “[f]ailure to sub-
mit a sentencing factor to the jury . . . is not structural error”
and a court should review it for harmlessness. Recuenco, 548
U.S. at 222. Unlike the structural errors identified above, the
failure to submit a sentencing factor to the jury does not “vi-
tiate” the jury’s entire verdict; it impacts only the jury’s ability
to make a finding on one discrete issue, leaving the jury’s ver-
dict on the defendant’s substantive offenses entirely intact.
Neder, 527 U.S. at 11. Our court has consistently followed
Recuenco’s precedent, applying harmless error review where
the district court failed to submit a sentencing factor to the

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No. 23-2489 7
jury. See, e.g., United States v. Williams, 493 F.3d 763, 765 (7th
Cir. 2007); United States v. Hollingsworth, 495 F.3d 795, 806 (7th
Cir. 2007).
Beasley’s case is nearly indistinguishable from Recuenco,
and the same result follows. Here, as there, the district court
imposed a sentence enhancement based on factual findings
not submitted to the jury. Under Recuenco’s clear holding, the
district court’s failure to submit the ACCA different-occasions
sentencing factor to the jury does not vitiate the jury’s entire
holding and accordingly is subject to harmless error review.
Beasley fails to engage with the substantial precedent
holding harmless-error review applies to Apprendi-like errors,
seeming to suggest Erlinger errors are distinguishable. But
that the error here arose under Erlinger rather than Apprendi
or Alleyne makes no difference to our analysis. Erlinger, by its
own description, is a straightforward application of the rule
from Apprendi and Alleyne that a jury must find all facts that
increase a defendant’s statutory penalties. 602 U.S. at 835
(“[Erlinger] is as nearly on all fours with Apprendi and Alleyne
as any [case] we might imagine.”). As such, we review Er-
linger errors, like other sentencing-factor errors, for harmless
error. See Johnson, 114 F.4th at 917 (applying harmless error
analysis to Erlinger error); United States v. Santana, 141 F.4th
847 (7th Cir. 2025) (reviewing unpreserved Erlinger error for
harmlessness within plain error review).1
1 Each of our sister circuits to consider an Erlinger error has uniformly
reviewed for harmlessness, too. See United States v. Brown, 136 F.4th 87, 95
(4th Cir. 2025); United States v. Butler, 122 F.4th 584, 589 (5th Cir. 2024);
United States v. Campbell, 122 F.4th 624, 631 (6th Cir. 2024); United States v.

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8 No. 23-2489
Nor does our analysis change because the court failed to
charge the ACCA-related sentencing factor in the indictment.
It is “well established in this circuit that Apprendi errors in
both the indictment and the charge to the jury are subject to
harmless error analysis.” United States v. Adkins, 274 F.3d 444,
454 (7th Cir. 2001); see also United States v. Nance, 236 F.3d 820,
825 (7th Cir. 2000) (holding Apprendi error not structural be-
cause an incomplete indictment is analogous to a jury instruc-
tion error, which the Court in Neder held we review for harm-
less error).
Beasley urges that his error rises to the level of a construc-
tive amendment to the indictment, which “is per se reversible
error.” United States v. Muresanu, 951 F.3d 833, 839 (7th Cir.
2020) (quoting United States v. Galiffa, 734 F.2d 306, 311 (7th
Cir. 1984)). Beasley relies on two cases, Stirone and Muresanu,
in which the trial court constructively altered the indictment
by convicting the defendant of an offense not charged in the
indictment, which was structural error because it violated the
substantial right to be tried only on charges in the grand jury’s
indictment. Stirone v. United States, 361 U.S. 212, 217 (1960);
Muresanu, 951 F.3d at 839. Both cases, however, involved the
subsequent addition of an entire offense not charged in the in-
dictment—in Stirone the erroneous jury instructions allowed
conviction for a separate Hobbs Act violation not charged in
the indictment, 361 U.S. at 214, and in Muresanu, the indict-
ment charged the defendant with an attempted crime but the
jury convicted him for the completed crime because the judge
Xavior-Smith, 136 F.4th 1136, 1137 (8th Cir. 2025); United States v. Rivers,
134 F.4th 1292, 1304–05 (11th Cir. 2025); United States v. Saunders, No. 23-
6735-cr, 2024 WL 4533359, at *2 (2d Cir. Oct. 21, 2024).

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No. 23-2489 9
omitted the word “attempt” from the jury instructions, 951
F.3d at 834–835. Here, by contrast, the indictment “fail[ed] to
allege . . . but one element of the ACCA sentencing enhance-
ment to be decided by the jury.” Brown, 136 F.4th at 96. Cases
involving the addition of new offenses to the indictment,
therefore, are not instructive here.
Accordingly, our court has never extended the principles
from Stirone to cases concerning the failure to charge a
sentencing factor, instead consistently reviewing for
harmlessness. See, e.g., Santana, 141 F.4th at 852 (applying
harmless-error review to Erlinger error where different-
occasions question was neither charged in the indictment nor
submitted to the jury); United States v. Gamez, 77 F.4th 594, 598
(7th Cir. 2023) (same); United States v. Mansoori, 480 F.3d 514,
518, 523 (7th Cir. 2007) (applying harmless error review where
indictment failed to charge factor that ultimately mandated a
life sentence). Other circuits to consider the issue agree.
Brown, 136 F.4th 87, 95 (noting, in Erlinger context, that
“failure to charge” error is not structural error and rejecting
argument that sentencing under ACCA without charging
ACCA violation constituted constructive amendment of the
indictment); United States v. Robinson, 367 F.3d 278, 286 (5th
Cir. 2004) (“[T]he absence of an indictment on the aggravating
factors used to justify a death sentence is not structural error
and is susceptible to harmless error review.”).
Finally, Beasley argues that harmless error review cannot
apply because, absent a jury verdict on the different-occasions
question, we have no point of comparison for what a properly
instructed jury could have found. He bases this argument on
language from Sullivan stating that without a “jury verdict of
guilty-beyond-a-reasonable-doubt, the question whether the

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10 No. 23-2489
same verdict of guilty-beyond-a-reasonable-doubt would
have been rendered absent the constitutional error is utterly
meaningless.” 508 U.S. at 280. But while “this strand of the
reasoning in Sullivan does provide support for [Beasley’s] po-
sition, it cannot be squared with [the Supreme Court’s] harm-
less-error cases.” Neder, 527 U.S. at 11; see, e.g., Pope v. Illinois,
481 U.S. 497, 499–501 (1987). The Supreme Court rejected the
same argument in Neder and Recuenco, both cases in which the
jury failed to return a verdict of guilty-beyond-a-reasonable-
doubt on the issue in question (an element of the offense in
Neder; a sentencing factor in Recuenco). The Supreme Court’s
repeated rejection of Beasley’s proposed application of the
language from Sullivan “compels our rejection of this argu-
ment here.” Recuenco, 548 U.S. at 222 n.4. Further, we have ap-
plied harmless error to Apprendi and Erlinger errors even
when the defendant pleaded guilty and there was no trial or
jury verdict at all. See Johnson, 114 F.4th at 917 (reviewing Er-
linger error for harmlessness after guilty plea).
Beasley attempts to deflect this precedent by again casting
his error as a charging error, noting Recuenco did not involve
analysis of a charging error. But the issue highlighted—that
there was no guilty verdict to use as a comparison for
harmless-error review—exists whether the sentencing factor
was omitted from the indictment, the jury instructions, or
both. We are not convinced Beasley has identified a
meaningful distinction, so we follow our precedent.
B. Harmless Error Analysis
A district court’s “failure to submit a sentencing factor to
a jury is harmless only if it is ‘clear beyond a reasonable
doubt’ that a properly instructed jury would have found the
same facts as the court.” Johnson, 114 F.4th at 917 (quoting

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No. 23-2489 11
Hollingsworth, 495 F.3d at 806); see also Chapman, 386 U.S. at 24.
Here, “[a] properly instructed jury would have considered ‘a
range of circumstances,’ including timing, proximity of loca-
tion, and the character and relationship of the offenses.” Id.
(citing Wooden, 595 U.S. at 369).
Beasley argues as a threshold matter that the government
cannot meet its burden of showing the error in this case was
harmless because we may not rely on Shepard documents,
without which the record contains no evidence regarding the
three predicate convictions’ timing, location, or relatedness.2
Here, we need not turn to Shepard documents because Beasley
conceded in his sentencing memorandum that two of the of-
fenses occurred over a year apart, and during the sentencing
hearing confirmed that the three past convictions at issue
were “an armed robbery on March 21st, 2004; an aggravated
battery on June 11th of [2005]; and [] a homicide on December
23rd of 2011.” These concessions alone are sufficient to sup-
port our harmlessness analysis. See United States v. Robinson,
964 F.3d 632, 638 (7th Cir. 2020) (finding no plain error where
court based sentence on defendant’s admission to drug quan-
tity without submitting that fact to the jury because “[a]n ad-
mission is even better than a jury’s finding” (quoting United
States v. Warneke, 310 F.3d 542, 550 (7th Cir. 2002))).
2 Beasley raised an even broader challenge at oral argument, arguing
that we may not rely on anything outside the trial record that was before
the jury when we conduct harmless error review. Beasley did not make
this argument prior to oral argument, however, and arguments raised for
the first time at oral argument are waived. Marvin v. Holcomb, 72 F.4th 828,
833 (7th Cir. 2023), cert. denied, 144 S. Ct. 557 (2024) (citing Harden v. Marion
Cnty. Sheriff's Dep't, 799 F.3d 857, 863 (7th Cir. 2015)).

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12 No. 23-2489
With Beasley’s concessions in mind, we consider the
Wooden factors: “timing, proximity of location, and the char-
acter and relationship of the offenses.” Id. (citing Wooden, 595
U.S. at 369). Often, “a single factor—especially of time or
place—can decisively differentiate occasions.” Wooden, 595
U.S. at 370. “When the crimes are separated by a day or more,
for example, they will ‘nearly always’ be treated as different
occasions.” Santana, 141 F.4th at 853 (quoting Wooden, 595 U.S.
at 370). And we have said following Wooden that “no colorable
argument” could support treating two robberies as having
been committed on the same occasion when they were sepa-
rated by thirty-six hours. United States v. Richardson, 60 F.4th
397, 399 (7th Cir. 2023).
In Johnson, we held the Erlinger error at issue was not
harmless because the offenses occurred “within minutes” and
less than a mile of each other. 114 F.4th at 917. Similarly, in
Santana, we held the jury could have reasonable doubt the
crimes were committed on different occasions where the de-
fendant committed them four miles and ten minutes apart. In
contrast, courts have found Erlinger errors harmless where
substantial gaps in time and distance separated the offenses
and the nature of the crimes differed. See, e.g., Brown, 136 F.4th
at 98–99 (robberies separated by two months); Butler, 122
F.4th at 590 (four drug crimes committed months to years
apart involving different buyers and different drugs); Camp-
bell, 122 F.4th at 632 (three drug crimes committed months
and hundreds of miles apart, involving different drugs).
This is the kind of case where the “single factor . . . of time
. . . decisively differentiate[s] occasions.” Wooden, 595 U.S. at
370. The record shows Beasley committed each offense over a
year apart (in 2004, 2005, and 2011), far beyond the thirty-six-

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No. 23-2489 13
hour limit we described in Richardson. 60 F.4th at 399. We can
think of “no colorable argument” for treating offenses sepa-
rated by over a year as having been committed on the same
occasion. Id. Further, the offenses differed in nature: an armed
robbery, an aggravated battery, and a homicide. It is clear be-
yond a reasonable doubt that a properly instructed jury
would have found that Beasley committed the three offenses
on different occasions.
One final note. Beasley argues the district court’s error
cannot be harmless because remanding to the district court to
allow the government to properly charge and prove the
ACCA enhancement would violate double jeopardy princi-
ples. Regardless of whether Beasley is correct that double
jeopardy would bar subsequent proceedings on the different-
occasions question, his argument does not show the district
court’s error was harmful. It has nothing to do with our in-
quiry, which is whether it is clear a properly instructed jury
would have found beyond a reasonable doubt the offenses oc-
curred on separate occasions. In any event, we are not re-
manding in this case because the district court’s Erlinger error
was harmless, so our decision does not implicate Beasley’s
double jeopardy concerns.
* * *
We review for harmless error a district court’s failure to
charge ACCA’s different-occasions factor in the indictment or
submit it to the jury. The error here was harmless.
The judgment of the district court is
AFFIRMED.

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