Kathryn Knowlton v. City of Wauwatosa

In the
United States Court of Appeals
For the Seventh Circuit
____________________
No. 23-2135
K ATHRYN K NOWLTON , et al.,
Plaintiffs-Appellants,
v.
C ITY OF WAUWATOSA, et al.,
Defendants-Appellees.
____________________
Appeal from the United States District Court for the
Eastern District of Wisconsin.
No. 20-cv-1660 — Nancy Joseph, Magistrate Judge.
____________________
A RGUED SEPTEMBER 5, 2024 — DECIDED O CTOBER 16, 2024
____________________
Before SYKES, Chief Judge, and ST. EVE and LEE, Circuit
Judges.
ST. EVE, Circuit Judge. In February 2020, Joseph Mensah, a
police officer in Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, shot and killed Alvin
Cole, a Black teenager. After Cole’s death, and amidst nation-
wide protests that followed the deaths of other Black individ-
uals at the hands of police, Wauwatosa community members
organized to protest police violence and racism.

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2 No. 23-2135
In the fall of 2020, the Milwaukee district attorney’s office
decided not to criminally charge Mensah in connection with
Cole’s death. Anticipating that decision could spark violence
in Wauwatosa, the mayor enacted a limited curfew order to
go into effect after its announcement.
The plaintiffs, who attended protests in Wauwatosa or
were otherwise affected by the curfew order, brought consti-
tutional and state law claims against the City of Wauwatosa
and several individual defendants based on the curfew and
police conduct—fourteen causes of action in total. As relevant
to this appeal, the plaintiffs brought ten claims under 42
U.S.C. § 1983, including allegations of First Amendment vio-
lations, and two claims under the Driver’s Privacy Protection
Act (“DPPA”), 18 U.S.C. § 2721, et seq. Of those claims, only
those alleging violations of the First Amendment and DPPA
survived the defendants’ motion to dismiss, and only the
DPPA claims survived summary judgment and proceeded to
trial. Ultimately, the remaining individual defendants pre-
vailed on the DPPA claims, too. This appeal concerns errors
the district court allegedly made at each stage of proceedings.
After review, we affirm.
I. Background
A. Factual Background
1. Protests Against Police Violence
On February 2, 2020, then-police officer Joseph Mensah
shot and killed Alvin Cole, a Black teenager, in Wauwatosa
Wisconsin. Cole’s death coincided with other high-profile po-
lice killings and shootings of Black individuals that year, in-
cluding George Floyd in Minneapolis, Minnesota; Breonna
Taylor in Louisville, Kentucky; and Jacob Blake in Kenosha,

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No. 23-2135 3
Wisconsin. Each contributed to a period of nationwide aware-
ness of and protests against police violence and racism. In
Wauwatosa, too, months of protests followed Cole’s death.
In June 2020, Mensah’s identity and role in Cole’s shooting
became public. Wauwatosa’s police commissioner suspended
Mensah with pay on July 15, 2020. Protests continued in Wau-
watosa thereafter, including on August 13, August 14, and
September 5, 2020.
Amidst these protests, on August 23, 2020, a police officer
in nearby Kenosha shot and seriously injured Jacob Blake, a
Black man. In the protests that followed the shooting, two
people were killed, one was seriously injured, and wide-
spread property damage occurred throughout Kenosha.
2. Wauwatosa Curfew
Back in Wauwatosa, Mayor Dennis McBride prepared for
a curfew. On September 30, 2020, in anticipation of the Mil-
waukee County district attorney’s announcement regarding
whether to charge Mensah in Cole’s death, McBride issued a
“Proclamation of Emergency” (the “Emergency Order”) ex-
plaining the curfew. The Emergency Order stated that the dis-
trict attorney’s office would release its charging decision on
October 7, 2020. It further provided:
[B]ased upon recent experience with protests concern-
ing the continued employment of Officer Mensah by
the WPD and upon community response to decisions
and actions regarding police officers nationwide, most
recently in Kenosha, Wisconsin, and Louisville, Ken-
tucky, it is anticipated that an emergency will exist in
the City of Wauwatosa due to conditions which will
arise following that announcement, including civil

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4 No. 23-2135
unrest throughout Wauwatosa which creates concerns
for the safety of persons and property and will impair
transportation, health, and police protection and other
critical systems in Wauwatosa;
[I]n order to protect the systems and services described
above, including the safety of persons and property, it
will be necessary to remove traffic and pedestrians
from Wauwatosa streets, limit the supply of flammable
materials, reduce access to certain facilities, preserve
resources for expected responses and protect the safety
of public employees in the most expedient manner
possible to reduce safety risks related to such activity
and to protect persons and property in Wauwatosa[.]
The Emergency Order imposed a curfew that temporarily re-
stricted pedestrian and vehicular traffic on Wauwatosa
streets. The curfew lasted five nights, from Wednesday, Octo-
ber 7 until Monday, October 12, and ran from 7:00 p.m. until
6:00 a.m.—roughly corresponding to the hours after sunset. It
provided exceptions for people commuting to and from work,
as well as for government officials, social service workers, and
credentialed members of the press.
As expected, on October 7, 2020, the district attorney an-
nounced his office’s decision to not criminally charge Mensah.
Despite the curfew, the announcement sparked nighttime
protests in Wauwatosa on October 8, 9, 10, and 11, during
which police arrested or ticketed many of the plaintiffs.
3. Collection and Distribution of Personal Information
Many of the plaintiffs here were involved with a group
called “The People’s Revolution,” which began protesting po-
lice-involved shootings after the death of George Floyd.

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No. 23-2135 5
Around May 25, 2020, defendant Dominic Ratkowski, a crime
analyst for the Wauwatosa police department, developed a
“protester target list” of individuals who he believed be-
longed to the group. The list contained identifying infor-
mation including names, dates of birth, addresses, and pho-
tographs. Ratkowski distributed the list to third parties.
Separately, in January 2021, Lieutenant Joseph Roy, a rec-
ords custodian in the Wauwatosa police department, released
unredacted documents relating to protest activities in re-
sponse to an open records request. The documents included
varying degrees of personal identifying information about
more than thirty of the plaintiffs.
B. Procedural Background
This litigation has an extensive procedural history. Just
two plaintiffs filed the original complaint in November 2020,
bringing claims against Wauwatosa, Mayor McBride, and
Wauwatosa Police Chief Barry Weber in their official capaci-
ties. All of the claims related to the curfew order and police
response to the plaintiffs’ protest activities. The plaintiffs then
filed their first amended complaint in March 2021, adding
forty-nine additional plaintiffs, eleven new claims, and this
time suing Wauwatosa, Weber, McBride, and “John Does Of-
ficers,” all in their individual capacities.
On August 21, 2021, the plaintiffs, now numbering more
than sixty, again amended their complaint,1 adding nine de-
fendants. The plaintiffs named each individual defendant in
his or her “official capacity,” besides McBride, who the
1 The plaintiffs mislabeled this second amended complaint as their
Third Amended Complaint.

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6 No. 23-2135
plaintiffs named in his “official capacity for declaratory and
injunctive relief only and in his individual capacity for puni-
tive damages.” They also included claims under the DPPA,
alleging that Ratkowski and Roy impermissibly collected and
disclosed the plaintiffs’ personal information.
After filing two notices of errata to correct formatting er-
rors and reassert inadvertently omitted claims, the plaintiffs
filed a corrected third amended complaint. In this iteration,
the plaintiffs again named all individual defendants except
for McBride solely in their official capacities. The district court
subsequently dismissed this complaint in a detailed opinion.
The court concluded:
Despite drafting 1,523 allegations over the span of 204
pages, and this being the third iteration of the Com-
plaint, every single one of Plaintiffs’ sixteen causes of
action fail[s] to state a claim upon which relief can be
granted.
The district court expressly cautioned the plaintiffs when
redrafting their complaint to “be clear whether asserting a
claim against particular defendants in their individual and/or
official capacity, or under Monell.” It also directed the plain-
tiffs to “consider the law on official and individual capacity
claims under § 1983 and sue accordingly.” The court gave the
plaintiffs leave to file an amended complaint, warning that the
next iteration “must address the deficiencies discussed here”
or else “risk dismissal … with prejudice.”
The plaintiffs thereafter filed their fourth amended com-
plaint, once more adding new defendants and new claims.
The complaint named every individual defendant, including
McBride, in his or her individual capacity “for declaratory

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No. 23-2135 7
and injunctive relief only.” The plaintiffs also named McBride
in his “individual capacity for punitive damages.”
The district court granted the defendants’ motion to dis-
miss the fourth amended complaint, dismissing with preju-
dice the plaintiffs’ claims for relief against the defendants
sued in their individual capacities for declaratory and injunc-
tive relief only. The district court also stated that the plaintiffs
would “not be allowed to file yet another amended com-
plaint.” It thereafter denied the plaintiffs’ motion for recon-
sideration.
After discovery, the district court granted summary judg-
ment for the defendants on the plaintiffs’ First Amendment
claim against Wauwatosa and McBride, Title VI claim against
Wauwatosa, and state law malicious prosecution claim
against officer Jeffrey Farina.
The DPPA claims against Ratkowski and Roy proceeded
to trial. During deliberations, the jury sent a question to the
court asking whether “height, weight, hair color, and eye
color” constituted “personal information” under the DPPA.
The district court answered by redirecting the jury to its initial
instruction, which provided the statutory definition of the
term. The jury asked no further questions and returned a ver-
dict in favor of Ratkowski and Roy.
II. Discussion
The plaintiffs raise four issues on appeal that implicate dif-
ferent stages of this litigation. First, they challenge the district
court’s grant of summary judgment for Wauwatosa and
McBride on the plaintiffs’ First Amendment claim related to
the curfew. Second, they challenge the district court’s dismis-
sal of the plaintiffs’ § 1983 claims against the individual

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8 No. 23-2135
defendants and denial of leave to amend those claims. Finally,
they challenge the district court’s response to the jury’s DPPA
question.
A. First Amendment Claim
The First Amendment “reflects a profound national com-
mitment to the principle that debate on public issues should
be uninhibited, robust, and wide-open.” Snyder v. Phelps, 562
U.S. 443, 452 (2011) (quoting New York Times Co. v. Sullivan,
376 U.S. 254, 270 (1964)). But “those rights are not absolute.”
Navratil v. City of Racine, 101 F.4th 511, 519 (7th Cir. 2024); see
also Heffron v. Int’l Soc’y for Krishna Consciousness, Inc., 452 U.S.
640, 647 (1981) (“[T]he First Amendment does not guarantee
the right to communicate one’s views at all times and places
or in any manner that may be desired.”). “[E]ven in a public
forum,” where the First Amendment applies with particular
force, “the government may impose reasonable restrictions on
the time, place, or manner of protected speech, provided the
restrictions are justified without reference to the content of the
regulated speech, that they are narrowly tailored to serve a
significant governmental interest, and that they leave open
ample alternative channels for communication of the infor-
mation.” Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 U.S. 781, 791 (1989)
(internal citation and quotation marks omitted).
Under Ward, we ask whether the challenged restriction
(1) is content neutral; (2) serves a significant government in-
terest; (3) is narrowly tailored to promote that interest; and
(4) leaves open ample alternative channels of communication.
See Hodgkins v. Peterson, 355 F.3d 1048, 1059 (7th Cir. 2004).
The plaintiffs challenge the district court’s ruling on the sec-
ond, third, and fourth elements. They waived their challenge

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No. 23-2135 9
to the first element by failing to raise it until their reply brief.2
White v. United States, 8 F.4th 547, 552 (7th Cir. 2021). We re-
view the district court’s decision to grant the defendants’ mo-
tion for summary judgment de novo. Lewis v. Ind. Wesleyan
Univ., 36 F.4th 755, 759 (7th Cir. 2022).
1. Significant Government Interest
We first consider whether Wauwatosa had a significant in-
terest in enacting the curfew. The Emergency Order made
clear that Wauwatosa imposed the curfew for the “safety of
persons and property.” The plaintiffs do not dispute that pre-
serving public safety constitutes a significant government in-
terest. See, e.g., McCullen, 573 U.S. at 486; Hill v. Colorado, 530
U.S. 703, 715 (2000); Navratil, 101 F.4th at 520 (recognizing the
significant government interest in “protecting public health
and safety”). Instead, they contend that a question of fact
2 Even if the plaintiffs had not waived their challenge, it would fail on
the merits. Regulation of protected First Amendment activity “remains
content neutral so long as it is ‘justified without reference to the content of
the regulated speech.’” McCullen v. Coakley, 573 U.S. 464, 465 (2014) (quot-
ing Renton v. Playtime Theatres, Inc., 475 U.S. 41, 48 (1986)). On its face, the
curfew here regulated all speech in Wauwatosa during nighttime hours
regardless of speaker or viewpoint. See id. at 479 (“[w]hether petitioners
violate the Act depends not on what they say, but simply on where they
say it[,]” rendering the act content neutral). Moreover, evidence in the rec-
ord suggests that Wauwatosa and McBride enacted the curfew to ensure
public safety, and not because of disagreement with any specific message.
See Menotti v. City of Seattle, 409 F.3d 1113, 1129 (9th Cir. 2005) (“The pur-
pose of enacting [the curfew order] had everything to do with the need to
restore and maintain civic order, and nothing to do with the content of
Appellants’ message.”). That the curfew may “disproportionately affect”
would-be protestors does not render the facially neutral order content
based. Brown v. Kemp, 86 F.4th 745, 780 (7th Cir. 2023).

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10 No. 23-2135
exists regarding whether Wauwatosa had a legitimate public
safety concern in this instance.
No question of fact exists. Although the plaintiffs are cor-
rect that a government “must demonstrate that … harms are
real, not merely conjectural,” Turner Broad. Sys., Inc. v. F.C.C.,
512 U.S. 622, 664 (1994), a government need not wait to act
until violence or harm materializes. Indeed, the government
has an interest in preventing emergencies and threats to pub-
lic safety, not merely responding to them after they transpire.3
See, e.g., McCullen, 573 U.S. at 486 (recognizing the govern-
ment’s interest in “ensuring public safety and order, promot-
ing the free flow of traffic on streets and sidewalks, [and] pro-
tecting property rights” (citation and internal quotation
marks omitted)); Turner Broad. Sys., Inc. v. F.C.C., 520 U.S. 180,
212 (1997) (“A fundamental principle of legislation is that
Congress is under no obligation to wait until the entire harm
occurs but may act to prevent it.”); Hulbert v. Pope, 70 F.4th
726, 735 (4th Cir. 2023) (“Preventive measures to promote
public safety are a basic contribution of government.”);
McCraw v. City of Oklahoma City, 973 F.3d 1057, 1073 (10th Cir.
2020) (“[A] government need not wait for accidents or
3 The plaintiffs’ reliance on the Supreme Court’s decisions in Branden-
burg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444, 447 (1969), Feiner v. New York, 340 U.S. 315, 321
(1951), and Terminiello v. City of Chicago, 337 U.S. 1, 5 (1949), does not fur-
ther their argument. The Court in those cases considered whether certain
types of speech warrant First Amendment protection at all. Here, the par-
ties do not dispute that the First Amendment protects a person’s right to
protest; the question we face is whether the government reasonably regu-
lated the plaintiffs’ speech. None of the cases the plaintiffs rely on—which
do not involve time, place, and manner restrictions—answers that ques-
tion.

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No. 23-2135 11
fatalities to address its interest through safety regulations.”).
The plaintiffs acknowledged as much during oral argument.
The plaintiffs ignore a slew of uncontested evidence in the
record that Wauwatosa’s public safety concerns were well
founded.4 First, civil unrest began simmering in Wauwatosa
in the months leading up to the October curfew. McBride tes-
tified during his deposition that “[p]eople were shutting
down businesses, pushing people, driving on neighbors’
lawns, trashing store windows and windows to the police and
the fire commissioners[,]” and “[b]locking off intersections.”
He further testified that people carried firearms into a council
meeting in early July, where “emotions were running high.”
The plaintiffs provide no evidence to refute this testimony.
Second, the neighboring town of Kenosha saw rioting, ex-
tensive property damage, serious physical injury, and two ci-
vilian deaths in the wake of the police shooting of Jacob Blake
weeks earlier. Although unrest in one city will not always
bear on unrest in another, the proximity in time (approxi-
mately six weeks) and place (45 miles from Wauwatosa and
also on the outskirts of Milwaukee) of these tragic events, cou-
pled with the severity and the already charged environment
in Wauwatosa, further supports the City’s public safety con-
cerns.
We need not, and do not, decide whether any of these facts
alone would suffice to support a significant government
4 This evidence distinguishes this case from NAACP of San Jose/Silicon
Valley v. City of San Jose, 562 F. Supp. 3d 382, 400–01 (N.D. Cal. 2021), on
which the plaintiffs rely. The district court in NAACP decided the case on
a motion to dismiss, with “no evidentiary record before it,” and therefore
“[no] adequate means” of assessing the challenged curfew. Id. at 400.

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12 No. 23-2135
interest. But on the record here, we agree with the district
court that they do.
2. Narrowly Tailored
We turn to whether Wauwatosa and McBride appropri-
ately tailored the five-day, nighttime curfew to address the
City’s safety concerns. To ensure a regulation is narrowly tai-
lored, the government does not need to use “the least restric-
tive or least intrusive means” to achieve its interest. Ward, 491
U.S. at 798. “Rather, the requirement of narrow tailoring is
satisfied ‘so long as the … regulation promotes a substantial
government interest that would be achieved less effectively
absent the regulation.’” Id. at 799 (quoting United States v. Al-
bertini, 472 U.S. 675, 689 (1985)); Milestone v. City of Monroe,
665 F.3d 774, 784 (7th Cir. 2011). Even a “complete ban can be
narrowly tailored” so long as the government seeks to curtail
“an appropriately targeted evil.” Frisby v. Schultz, 487 U.S.
474, 485 (1988). Still, the government “may not regulate ex-
pression in such a manner that a substantial portion of the
burden on speech does not serve to advance its goals.” McCul-
len, 573 U.S. at 486.
Wauwatosa and McBride tailored the curfew to promote
the government’s interest in preserving order and public
safety. It kept people off the streets only on the heels of the
district attorney’s no prosecution announcement—when the
City feared for the safety of its people and their property—

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No. 23-2135 13
and was not imposed arbitrarily because of a generalized fear
amidst nationwide protests.5
Moreover, the curfew did not burden substantially more
speech than necessary. It was limited in duration (lasting five
days) and in time (taking effect only at night), and provided
exceptions for specific groups of people. The plaintiffs argue
that Wauwatosa could have adopted a less restrictive ap-
proach—e.g., by shortening the duration of the curfew or
more narrowly tailoring place and manner restrictions—but a
“regulation will not be invalid simply because a court con-
cludes that the government’s interest could be adequately
served by some less-speech-restrictive alternative.” Ward, 491
U.S. at 797, 800 (the court of appeals “erred in sifting through
all the available or imagined alternative[s] … in order to de-
termine whether the city’s solution was ‘the least intrusive
means’ of achieving the desired end” because “[t]his less-re-
strictive-alternative analysis … has never been a part of the
inquiry into the validity of a time, place, and manner regula-
tion”).
The means employed here—a durationally limited,
nighttime curfew—was not substantially broader than neces-
sary to prevent the harm it targeted—unsafe conditions in the
days immediately following the district attorney’s no prose-
cution announcement.
5 The fact that McBride began planning for the curfew before the dis-
trict attorney’s announcement does not render its imposition improper.
The plaintiffs themselves acknowledged the prudence of planning for po-
tential unrest.

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14 No. 23-2135
3. Alternative Channels of Communication
Finally, we consider whether the curfew left open ample
alternative means of communication. “While the First
Amendment does not guarantee the right to employ every
conceivable method of communication at all times and in all
places, a restriction on expressive activity may be invalid if
the remaining modes of communication are inadequate.”
Members of City Council v. Taxpayers for Vincent, 466 U.S. 789,
812 (1984) (citations omitted). An “alternative does not have
to be the speaker’s first or best choice, or one that provides the
same audience or impact for the speech.” Gresham v. Peterson,
225 F.3d 899, 906 (7th Cir. 2000) (citing Heffron, 452 U.S. at 647
and Ward, 491 U.S. at 802). But it “must be realistic,” and “can-
not totally foreclose a speaker’s ability to reach one audience
even if it allows the speaker to reach other groups.” Id. at 906–
07.
The Emergency Order left the plaintiffs with ample alter-
native means of communication. The plaintiffs could protest
in Wauwatosa during daytime hours throughout curfew. Peo-
ple who worked “normal work hours” could protest before or
after work until 7:00 p.m. on Wednesday, Thursday, and Fri-
day, or during the two weekend days covered by the curfew.
People could also protest at any time after the curfew expired.
We are not persuaded by the plaintiffs’ argument that a
time-based restriction like Wauwatosa’s curfew must leave
open alternative means of communication during the curfew.
We know of no binding or persuasive case that establishes

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No. 23-2135 15
such a requirement, and the plaintiffs point to none.6 Our
analysis does not depend on whether the plaintiffs had ample
means to communicate at night during the five-day curfew,
but on whether they had ample, realistic alternatives that
would allow them to reach their audience. Gresham, 225 F.3d
at 907; see also Tinius v. Choi, 77 F.4th 691, 702 (D.C. Cir. 2023)
(curfew order left open ample alternative channels of commu-
nications where protesters “were free to protest during the
day between the hours of 6:00 A.M. and 7:00 P.M., and to pro-
test at night after the two-day curfew expired”).
The plaintiffs here have made “no showing that the re-
maining avenues of communication,” including protests dur-
ing the day and over the weekend, “are inadequate.” Ward,
491 U.S. at 802.7
* * *
Based on the unique facts in this case, Wauwatosa’s lim-
ited, nighttime curfew—imposed in anticipation of unsafe
conditions following the district attorney’s no prosecution
6 The plaintiffs cite only to an out-of-circuit district court case, Occupy
Fresno v. County of Fresno, 835 F. Supp. 2d 849, 864 (E.D. Cal. 2011). While
the plaintiffs in Fresno happened to have ability to protest all day, the dis-
trict court did not impose any requirement that the county permit such
unrestricted protest.
7 The plaintiffs’ reliance on our decision in Hodgkins is misguided. Alt-
hough we explained that “many … expressive activities … occur late in
the evening,” in that case we considered a permanent, statewide juvenile
curfew—one far different from the targeted and short-lived curfew at is-
sue here. Hodgkins, 355 F.3d at 1062. Unlike the plaintiffs in Hodgkins, the
plaintiffs here were not asked to permanently surrender their rights “to
participate in late-night activities whose context and message are tied to
the late hour and the public forum.” Id. at 1063.

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16 No. 23-2135
announcement—did not violate the plaintiffs’ rights under
the First Amendment.
B. Section 1983 Claims Against Individual Defendants
The plaintiffs also brought claims under 42 U.S.C. § 1983
against many of the individual defendants named in this ac-
tion. The district court dismissed these claims with prejudice
and denied the plaintiffs leave to amend. The plaintiffs chal-
lenge each of these decisions.
1. District Court’s Dismissal
Section 1983 makes a “person” liable for statutory and
constitutional violations committed “under color” of state
law. 42 U.S.C. § 1983. Plaintiffs may sue such persons in their
individual or official capacities. In an individual capacity suit,
a plaintiff may only seek monetary damages; in an official ca-
pacity suit, a plaintiff may only seek injunctive or declaratory
relief. Greenawalt v. Ind. Dep’t of Corr., 397 F.3d 587, 589 (7th
Cir. 2005); Hill v. Shelander, 924 F.2d 1370, 1374 (7th Cir. 1991);
Brown v. Montoya, 662 F.3d 1152, 1161 n.5 (10th Cir. 2011). We
review de novo the district court’s dismissal of the plaintiffs’
§ 1983 claims. Gonzalez v. McHenry County, 40 F.4th 824, 827
(7th Cir. 2022).
In their fourth amended complaint, the plaintiffs sued the
individual defendants in their “individual capacit[ies] for de-
claratory and injunctive relief only.” The district court cor-
rectly dismissed each of these claims because a plaintiff may
only obtain declaratory and injunctive relief against parties
sued in their official capacities.
In ruling on the defendants’ prior motion to dismiss, the
district court expressly warned the plaintiffs when filing their
next and fifth iteration of their complaint to “consider the law

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No. 23-2135 17
on official and individual capacity claims under § 1983 and
sue accordingly.” Knowlton v. City of Wauwatosa, No. 20-CV-
1660, 2022 WL 298797, at *4 (E.D. Wis. Feb. 1, 2022); see also
Pension Tr. Fund for Operating Eng’rs v. Kohl’s Corp., 895 F.3d
933, 941 (7th Cir. 2018) (“[W]e look only to decisions of the
court to determine whether the plaintiffs knew of faults with
their complaint.”). The plaintiffs failed to do so. If the plain-
tiffs wanted to sue for money damages, they could have (and
should have) made that clear. In no prior iteration of their
complaint did the plaintiffs sue for money damages against
these individual defendants. This is not a case where the
plaintiffs inadvertently omitted whether they sought to sue
defendants in their individual or official capacities, but the
rest of the complaint or pleading history gave the court
enough information to draw reasonable inferences. Cf. Hill,
924 F.2d at 1374; Akins v. Bd. of Governors of State Colls. and
Univs., 840 F.2d 1371, 1377 (7th Cir. 1988).
The solution to the plaintiffs’ pleading error is not to read
in an ambiguity and allow the fourth amended complaint to
go forward. See Porch v. Univ. of Ill. at Chi. Sch. of Med., No. 23-
2529, 2024 WL 2287194, at *2 (7th Cir. May 21, 2024) (“The dis-
trict court correctly rejected [the plaintiff’s] amended com-
plaint because, despite the explanation in the first dismissal
order, the new pleading did not include [plausible] allega-
tions.”). The district court properly dismissed the plaintiffs’
claims under § 1983.
2. Leave to Amend
Rule 15(a) provides that a court “should freely give leave
[to amend] when justice so requires,” Fed. R. Civ. P. 15(a), and
“favors amendment as a general matter,” Allen v. Brown Advi-
sory, LLC, 41 F.4th 843, 853 (7th Cir. 2022) (citing Foman v.

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18 No. 23-2135
Davis, 371 U.S. 178, 182 (1962)). Still, the rule does “not man-
date that leave be granted in every case.” Park v. City of Chi-
cago, 297 F.3d 606, 612 (7th Cir. 2002). Where a plaintiff repeat-
edly fails to cure deficiencies, the district court enjoys “broad
discretion” to deny leave to amend. Arreola v. Godinez, 546
F.3d 788, 796 (7th Cir. 2008). We review a district court’s de-
nial of leave to amend for abuse of discretion and will reverse
“only if no reasonable person could agree with that decision.”
Freeman v. Ocwen Loan Servicing, LLC, 113 F.4th 701, 707 (7th
Cir. 2024) (quoting Huon v. Denton, 841 F.3d 733, 745 (7th Cir.
2016)).
The district court did not abuse its discretion in denying
the plaintiffs leave to amend their complaint for a fourth
time.8 The plaintiffs had the benefit of a ruling on the merits
of their third amended complaint. Not only that, but the dis-
trict court pointed out substantive defects, instructed the
plaintiffs to pay particular attention to § 1983 pleading re-
quirements, and warned that failure to remedy these defects
could result in dismissal with prejudice:
Plaintiffs are warned that this amended complaint
must clarify which Plaintiffs sue which Defendants.
8 The defendants urge us to treat this argument as waived because the
plaintiffs did not formally move for leave to amend. We decline to do so.
The district court preemptively denied the plaintiffs leave to amend in its
ruling on the plaintiffs’ motion to dismiss, and so the plaintiffs did not
have the opportunity to make a motion. The plaintiffs also attached their
proposed fifth amended complaint to their brief in support of reconsider-
ation. See Bausch v. Stryker Corp., 630 F.3d 546, 562 (7th Cir. 2010) (“a formal
motion for leave to amend was not necessary at the Rule 12(b)(6) stage,”
where, among other things, the plaintiff submitted her proposed amended
complaint with her motion to alter judgment).

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No. 23-2135 19
Plaintiffs should consider the law on official and indi-
vidual capacity claims under § 1983 and sue accord-
ingly. While it is true that pleading rules favor decision
on the merits rather than technicalities, as the Seventh
Circuit has stated, “these general principles have some
limits.” Stanard v. Nygren, 658 F.3d 792, 800–01 (7th Cir.
2011). After over a year of litigation, we still do not
have a proper operative complaint. If Plaintiffs cannot
remedy these errors as articulated in this decision,
Plaintiffs risk having this complaint dismissed with
prejudice.
A district court does not “abuse its discretion when it had
explained what was wrong with the initial complaint and had
already provided one opportunity to amend.” Porch, 2024 WL
2287194, at *2; see also Lee v. Ne. Ill. Reg’l Commuter R.R. Corp.,
912 F.3d 1049, 1053 (7th Cir. 2019) (no abuse of discretion in
denying leave to amend for a fourth time, even though the
plaintiffs only had the benefit of one judicial opinion); Air-
borne Beepers & Video, Inc. v. AT & T Mobility LLC, 499 F.3d 663,
666 (7th Cir. 2007) (the plaintiff’s “failure to fix … shortcom-
ings” the district court identified in its complaint provided
“ample grounds for dismissal”). This holds especially true
where, as here, the plaintiffs “[were] represented by counsel,”
Porch, 2024 WL 2287194, at *2, and the district court gave them
“adequate warning that refusal to comply would lead to dis-
missal,” Airborne Beepers & Video, Inc., 499 F.3d at 667. Given
the protracted nature of this litigation, the plaintiffs’ repeated
opportunities to state a claim, and their disregard of the dis-
trict court’s explicit instructions, the district court did not
abuse its discretion in denying the plaintiffs leave to amend.

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20 No. 23-2135
C. DPPA Jury Instruction
We turn to the final issue on appeal: the district court’s an-
swer to a jury question relating to the definition of “personal
information” under the DPPA. We review the content of the
district court’s response for an abuse of discretion. Morgan v.
City of Chicago, 822 F.3d 317, 342 (7th Cir. 2016); United States
v. Young, 316 F.3d 649, 661 (7th Cir. 2002).
The district court initially instructed the jury:9
“Personal information” means information that identi-
fies an individual, including an individual’s photo-
graph, social security number, driver identification
number, name, address (but not the 5-digit zip code),
telephone number, and medical or disability infor-
mation, but does not include information on vehicular
accidents, driving violations, and driver’s status.
During its deliberations, the jury sent a question to the district
court in connection with this instruction: “[a]re height,
weight, hair color, and eye color considered as ‘personal in-
formation’ pertinent to the DPPA?” The district court
9 The plaintiffs did not object to the jury instruction at any point before
or during trial and the record belies their contention that they did not have
the opportunity to object. The district court held a jury instruction confer-
ence during which the plaintiffs raised multiple arguments but did not
challenge the statutory definition of “personal information” as proposed.
When the district court went a step further and invited objections, the
plaintiffs’ counsel responded that they had “[n]othing.”

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No. 23-2135 21
responded by referring the jury back to its original instruc-
tion, over objection from the plaintiffs’ counsel.10
The district court did not abuse its discretion in referring
the jury back to its original instruction. A district court has
“broad” discretion in responding to a jury question, so long
as the answer “dispels any confusion quickly and with con-
crete accuracy.” United States v. Durham, 645 F.3d 883, 894 (7th
Cir. 2011). This does not require the “best” answer. United
States v. Hewlett, 453 F.3d 876, 880 (7th Cir. 2006); see also
Sowewimo v. Hennrich, 81 F. App’x 893, 896 (7th Cir. 2003) (no
abuse of discretion even where “there may have been alterna-
tive or more direct responses” to a jury question). If the origi-
nal instruction “‘clearly and correctly states the applicable
law, the judge may properly answer the jury’s question by in-
structing the jury to reread the instructions.’” United States v.
Span, 170 F.3d 798, 802 (7th Cir. 1999) (quoting United States v.
Mealy, 851 F.2d 890, 902 (7th Cir. 1988)); see also Sowewimo, 81
F. App’x at 896; Durham, 645 F.3d at 894 (no abuse of discre-
tion where the district court referred the jury back to legally
sound instructions, rather than answering its question in the
affirmative).
The district court’s original instruction presents an accu-
rate statement of the law. It took the language directly from
the DPPA’s definition of “personal information.” 18 U.S.C.
10 The DPPA defines “personal information” as “information that
identifies an individual.” 18 U.S.C. § 2725(3). In Dahlstrom v. Sun-Times
Media, LLC, 777 F.3d 937, 943 (7th Cir. 2015), we interpreted that “broad”
language to hold that age, height, weight, hair color, and eye color “relate[]
to the [individual’s] physical appearance and, therefore, indisputably
aid[] in ‘identif[ying]’ them” under the DPPA.

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22 No. 23-2135
§ 2725. That the plaintiffs wanted the district court to answer
with a simple “yes” does not amount to an abuse of discretion.
Hewlett, 453 F.3d at 880.
III. Conclusion
The district court properly held that Wauwatosa imposed
a permissible time, place, and manner restriction under the
First Amendment. It did not err in dismissing the plaintiffs’
§ 1983 claims as inadequately pleaded and it acted well within
its discretion in denying leave to amend. Its answer to the
jury’s question similarly fell within its discretion. For these
reasons, the judgment of the district court is
AFFIRMED.

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