Nanouk v. The United States of America

IN THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
FOR THE DISTRICT OF ALASKA
EMILY NANOUK,
Plaintiff,
vs.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Defendant.
Case No. 3:15-cv-00221-RRB
ORDER DENYING
MOTION TO DISMISS
WITHOUT PREJUDICE
Docket 232
I. 	INTRODUCTION
Before the Court is Defendant, the United States of America, with a Motion
to Dismiss for Lack of Subject Matter Jurisdiction.1 	Plaintiff, Emily Nanouk, opposes,2
and Defendant replies.3
A. 	Background
The underlying facts of this matter are well known to the parties and
previously have been discussed by the Court. During the Cold War, the United States Air
Force relied upon a communication system known as the White Alice Communication
System, comprised of strategically located relay stations in remote Alaska to monitor
1 Docket 232.
2 Docket 252.
3 Docket 256.
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Soviet activities. At issue here is a site known as the North River Relay Station (“NRS”),4
which was located eight miles east of the village of Unalakleet, Alaska, “situated on a
hilltop above the banks of the Unalakleet River at about 500 feet above mean sea level . . .
on mostly gravel fill.”5
The White Alice sites were operated primarily by contractors, with little
direct supervision from the Air Force. Given the remoteness of the sites and the hazardous
weather, the stations required the use of high voltage transformers to operate, which, in
turn, required the use of transformer oil containing PCBs.6 	It is the disposal methods
associated with this oil that led to much of the contamination that later was discovered at
the sites. 	The NRS closed in 1979 and, when the White Alice system closed, the
contractors departed the various stations and left behind the hazardous waste. Some of this
waste ultimately contaminated Plaintiff’s Native Allotment, giving rise to the instant
dispute.
Hazardous waste cleanup at formerly used defense sites (“FUDS”) was first
initiated in 1983 when funding became available, and sites were prioritized on a “worst
first” basis, meaning that sites with higher risk to human health and environment generally
4 The parties, this Court, and the Court of Appeals referred to this location as the North River
Station, North River Relay Station, North River Radio Relay Station, North River RRS, NRRRS, and NRS.
For simplicity this Court refers to it as the NRS.
5 Docket 151-27.
6 PCBs are Polychlorinated Biphenyls, “a broad family of man-made organic chemicals known
as chlorinated hydrocarbons. PCBs were manufactured domestically from 1929 until manufacturing was
banned in 1979.” 	https://www.epa.gov/pcbs/learn-about-polychlorinated-biphenyls-pcbs (last visited
February 24, 2023).
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were considered first in the priority-setting process.7 	There were over 10,000 FUDS
locations nationwide, with as many as 532 in Alaska.
Assessment of the NRS site took several years, and it was not until 1989 that
the findings based on the assessment brought NRS formally within the scope of the DoD’s
Defense Environmental Restoration Program (“DERP”), making it eligible for the funds
designated to clean up FUDS.8 	The NRS site at issue here was designated as “medium”
risk by the Air Force in December 1990.9 	An extensive report entitled “Environmental
Assessment and Finding of No Significant Impact,” was produced by the U.S. Army Corp
of Engineers in November 1991.10 	Analysis of soil samples indicated five areas of
contamination requiring remediation at NRS, with PCBs found at some of those locations,
none of which included the hotspot at issue here.11 The Army Corp of Engineers delegated
assessment and cleanup activities to civilian contractors.12
In the summer of 2003, thirteen years after funding first was earmarked for
cleanup of the White Alice sites, the Air Force conducted a “complete site assessment and
inspection” to “identify all contamination sources and potential contamination sources,”
and invited the local community to express concerns. 	It was during this assessment that
Plaintiff brought the PCB hot spot giving rise to this litigation to the attention of the Air
Force.13 The location covered an elliptical area about 15 feet by 40 feet in a location that,
7 Docket 232 at 8.
8 Id. at 9.
9 Docket 152-5 at 19.
10 See Docket 151-25. A location map is found at page 15 of this report.
11 Id. at 4.
12 Docket 232 at 11.
13 It is unclear to the Court when Plaintiff became aware of the hotspot.
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according to the Government’s brief, “may have been used for drum storage.”14 The hot
spot contained over 40,000 ppm of PCB.15 Contamination of Plaintiff’s property occurred
when vehicles were driven over the hot spot on their way to Plaintiff’s cabin.
B. 	The Federal Tort Claims Act
The United States generally is immune from liability unless sovereign
immunity has been clearly waived. 	The Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA) waives the
United States’ sovereign immunity:
for claims seeking money damages “for injury or loss of
property, or personal injury or death caused by the negligent or
wrongful act or omission of any employee of the Government
while acting within the scope of his office or employment,
under circumstances where the United States, if a private
person, would be liable to the claimant in accordance with the
law of the place where the act or omission occurred.”16
The waiver, however, is not absolute, and does not extend to discretionary or judgmental
decisions of the sovereign.17 This discretionary function exception:
preserves the United States’ immunity from suit as to any claim
“based upon the exercise or performance or the failure to
exercise or perform a discretionary function or duty on the
part of a federal agency or an employee of the Government,
whether or not the discretion involved be abused.” [28 U.S.C.]
§ 2680(a). 	The government bears the burden of establishing
that the exception applies.18
14 Docket 232 at 17.
15 Docket 25 at 3. Acceptable levels of PCB, as established by the EPA, permit up to 25 ppm in
low occupancy areas. 40 C.F.R. § 761.61(a)(4)(i)(B).
16 Nanouk v. United States, 974 F.3d 941, 944 (9th Cir. 2020) (citing 28 U.S.C. §§ 1346(b)(1) and
2674). 17 See 28 U.S.C. § 2680(a).
18 Nanouk, 974 F.3d at 944 (citing Chadd v. United States, 794 F.3d 1104, 1108 (9th Cir. 2015)
(emphasis added)).
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Discretionary functions are defined as acts or omissions involving “an
element of judgment or choice.’”19 	If the Government employee’s conduct involves an
element of judgment or choice, courts then consider whether the discretionary judgment
was “grounded in social, economic, [or] political policy,” because Congress has sought to
preclude courts from second-guessing such decisions.20 The exception is broad, sheltering
“actions taken on the basis of erroneous facts, the failure to exercise available discretion in
any way, the failure to perform supervisorial tasks, and the failure to enforce effectively
regulatory orders.”21 The exception applies whether or not the activity involved is viewed
as planning or operational,22 or “whether or not the discretion involved be abused.”23 	In
short, “whether the government was negligent is irrelevant to the applicability of the
discretionary function exception, . . . [but] how the government is alleged to have been
negligent is critical.”24
But “[t]he distinction between protected and unprotected actions and decisions has
proven itself to be a particularly vexing determination for district and appellate courts alike.”25
Governmental actions “can be classified along a spectrum, ranging from those ‘totally divorced
19 Id. at 945 (citing Berkovitz v. United States, 486 U.S. 531, 536 (1988)). (“If the act did not
involve an element of judgment or choice, the analysis ends there and the plaintiff’s claim may proceed.”)
20 Id. (citing United States v. Varig Airlines, 467 U.S. 797, 814 (1984)).
21 Baker v. United States, 817 F.2d 560, 564 (9th Cir. 1987); see also Terbush v. United States,
516 F.3d 1125, 1129 (9th Cir. 2008) (“Even if the decision is an abuse of the discretion granted, the
exception will apply.”).
22 See United States v. Gaubert, 499 U.S. 315 (1991).
23 28 U.S.C. § 2680(a).
24 Whisnant v. United States, 400 F.3d 1177, 1185 (9th Cir. 2005) (emphasis original) (Finding
that if plaintiff “were claiming that the government was negligent in electing to employ contractors rather
than doing the work itself, or in designing its safety regulations, then his claim would most likely be barred;
instead, he is claiming that the government negligently ignored health hazards that were called to its
attention, and so his claim is not barred.”).
25 Terbush, 516 F.3d at 1129.
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from the sphere of policy analysis,’ such as driving a car, to those ‘fully grounded in regulatory
policy,’ such as the regulation and oversight of a bank.”26
“For a[n FTCA] complaint to survive a motion to dismiss, it must allege facts
which would support a finding that the challenged actions are not the kind of conduct that
can be said to be grounded in the policy of the regulatory regime.”27 	“The focus of the
inquiry is not on the agent’s subjective intent in exercising the discretion conferred by
statute or regulation, but on the nature of the actions taken and on whether they are
susceptible to policy analysis.”28 	Plaintiff stresses that “because the FTCA is intended to
remedy harm caused by the Government, ‘it should be construed liberally, and its exceptions
should be read narrowly.”29
C. 	Procedural History
In 2018, this Court found:
[A]fter considerable effort on the part of the Air Force, PCB
contamination has been remediated. 	While one might debate
the speed of the [Government’s] efforts over the years, it
cannot be seriously doubted that discretion was exercised,
policy analyzed, and judgment employed, be it good or bad, in
addressing the matter, in overseeing various contractors, and in
determining 	when 	and 	how 	to 	proceed 	with 	remediation
efforts.30
This Court further found that “environmental remediation on the part of the Government
in situations such as this is properly viewed as a discretionary function of the government
26 Id. (citation omitted).
27 Gaubert, 499 U.S. at 324–25.
28 Id. at 325.
29 Docket 252 at 20 (citing Terbush, 516 F.3d at 1135).
30 Docket 194.
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for which the government cannot be held liable,” concluding that the discretionary function
exception protected Defendant from Plaintiff’s claims arising from the contamination and
the subsequent environmental remediation efforts which all impacted her property.31 This
Court accordingly determined that it lacked subject matter jurisdiction, in the absence of a
valid FTCA claim, and entered Judgment in favor of Defendant.32 Plaintiff appealed.33
On September 4, 2020, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals issued a decision
agreeing, in part, “that the discretionary function exception bars Nanouk’s claims to the
extent they are predicated on two of the three acts she challenges as negligent.”34 	The
Ninth Circuit observed that:
Nanouk predicates her claims on three distinct actions . . . that
she alleges created the hot spot and led to the contamination of
her property. First, she contends that during the period of the
North River Station’s operation (1957–1978), the Air Force
failed to prevent PCBs, which are found in used transformer
oil, from being dumped on the ground. Second, she asserts that
after the station closed, the Air Force and the Army Corps
essentially 	abandoned 	the 	site, 	leaving 	behind 	barrels
containing PCBs and allowing their contents to leak into the
soil. 	Third, she argues that once the Air Force and the Army
Corps redirected their remediation efforts toward the North
River Station in 1990, they failed to discover and clean up the
hot spot in a timely manner.35
31 Id.
32 Docket 195.
33 Docket 202.
34 Nanouk, 974 F.3d at 942.
35 Id. at 945.
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Acknowledging the discretionary nature of the decisions involved here, the Court of
Appeals held that the Government would prevail “if it can show that the decision[s]
challenged by the plaintiff [were] ‘susceptible to policy analysis.’”36
The Ninth Circuit agreed that the discretionary function exception barred
liability based on the handling of PCBs during the station’s operation and its abandonment
of the station between 1978 and 1990, finding that “the government had discretion to decide
when and how to conduct the remediation,” and that “no mandatory and specific directive
required the government to complete the process within a specific timeframe.”37 But the
panel held that that the Government had not definitively established that the exception
barred liability based on the delay in discovering and remediating the hot spot between
1990 and 2003. The panel was “unable to determine whether the government’s decisions
were ‘grounded in a social, economic, and political policy,’” because the Government “has
not identified any competing policy considerations underlying the 13-year delay in
discovering the hot spot and commencing removal of the PCBs from the affected area.”38
The Court of Appeals found that the Government’s “general appeal to limited resources,”
and “focus[] on its decision in the 1980s to prioritize sites posing graver risks of
environmental harm” was inadequate to trigger the discretionary function exception.39
Although the Court of Appeals found that such policy considerations justified the
abandonment of the station between 1978 and 1990, they did not automatically shield the
36 Id. (citing Gaubert, 499 U.S. at 325).
37 Id. at 945–49.
38 Id. at 949–50.
39 Id. at 950.
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Government from liability for subsequent delays. 	In other words, once the Government
turned its attention to the NRS in 1990, “its failure to conduct the clean-up in a timely
manner thereafter was ‘not the result of a policy choice,’ but ‘simply a failure to effectuate
policy choices already made.’”40
While the Ninth Circuit left open the possibility that “the government may
have been conducting environmental remediation at higher priority sites throughout the 13-
year period of delay, thus preventing it from directing sufficient resources to the North
River Station,” it found that the Government had not made an adequate factual showing of
this. 	Acknowledging that the discretionary function exception may still protect the
Government’s 	weighing 	of 	competing 	policy 	considerations, 	the 	Court of 	Appeals
remanded the third issue to this Court specifically to consider whether the delay in pursuing
remediation at the NRS involved decisions “susceptible to policy analysis,” such that the
discretionary function exception should apply.41 	Accordingly, this Court invited further
briefing, and oral argument was held on February 1, 2023.
II. 	DISCUSSION
A. 	Issue on Remand
It is the law of the case that any decisions made from 1979 through 1990 are
protected by the discretionary function exception. 	The issue on remand is whether the
decisions made between 1990 and the discovery of the hotspot in 2003 were decisions
40 Id. (citing Camozzi v. Roland/Miller & Hope Consulting Group, 866 F.2d 287, 290 (9th Cir.
1989)). 41 Nanouk, 974 F.3d at 950.
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based on policy, and therefore also subject to the discretionary function exception, or
whether they simply were failure to effectuate the policy choices already made.
The Government argues that because CERCLA42 regulations explicitly allow the
Government discretion “to take any response action at any particular time,” that its actions
from 1990 forward “must be presumed” to be grounded in policy where a policy explicitly
or impliedly allows for discretion.43 	But Plaintiff, noting that the failure to effectuate
policy choices is not protected by the discretionary function exception, argues that “the
government’s own reports admit to its failures” with respect to inadequate testing,
ignorance of prior evidence of PCB at the site, and the reliance on reports generated despite
inadequate recordkeeping.44
The Government claims that multiple policy considerations factored into the
timing and scope of remediation at the 260-acre site, including the deployment of finite
resources to cleanup dozens of other sites in Alaska.45 	It maintains that “environmental
remediation at higher priority sites . . . prevented it from directing sufficient resources to
the North River Station,” and that these competing needs and other policy reasons factored
into the timing of the identification and remediation of the hotspot.46 	It argues that such
42 42 U.S.C. § 9601 et seq. “The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act (CERCLA), commonly known as Superfund, was enacted by Congress on December 11,
1980. This law created a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries and provided broad Federal authority
to respond directly to releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances that may endanger public
health or the environment.” 	https://www.epa.gov/superfund/superfund-cercla-overview (last visited
March 2, 2023).
43 Docket 256 at 7 (citing 40 C.F.R. § 300.400(i)(3)); Lam v. United States, 979 F.3d 665, 681
(9th Cir. 2020).
44 Docket 252 at 18.
45 Docket 232 at 24–29. Elsewhere the site is described as 216 acres.
46 Id. at 5.
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decisions involved weighing competing policy considerations, such as prioritizing cleanup
of sites with higher environmental risks, allocating limited resources, and mobilizing to
remote sites.47 	**Defendant argues that these decisions also concerned safety, and that
“balancing competing safety considerations is a protected policy judgment.”48 	Thus, the
Government argues that every decision that led to the discovery of the PCB hotspot in
2003, and not earlier, was susceptible to policy analysis.
B. 	1990 through 1996
In December 1990, the NRS received its first ranking for relative risk, which
the Air Force designated as “medium” in relation to “an average of 69 other properties per
year during the 1990s.”49 	The Army Corp of Engineers conducted the first step of the
investigation, purportedly focusing on areas near structures which were most likely to
contain contamination, arguably a policy decision following the “worst first” triage.
According to the Government’s brief, five specific “areas of contamination”
were identified for cleanup in NRS by November 1991.50 	Active cleanup of the NRS
began in June 1993, but the first contractors who performed the work went out of business,
leaving the work incomplete. 	In 1994, CH2M Hill issued a report indicating that more
cleanup and sampling was required. A second contractor performed cleanup work in 1995–
47 Id. at 25–29.
48 Docket 256 at 14 (citing Bailey v. United States, 623 F.3d 855, 862 (9th Cir. 2010) (Noting that
“balancing competing safety considerations is a protected policy judgment.”)).
49 Docket 232 at 9.
50 A map of “Zone 1” of the NRS site is found at Docket 152-5 at 20. A map identifying the
location of specific contamination is found at Docket 151-27.
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1996, but the Army Corps of Engineers, noting inadequate documentation by the second
contractor, found the work inadequate and took on responsibility for a final report.
Plaintiff argues that the Government’s failure to inspect the site, knowing
that its contractors defaulted and failed to provide reports, was not grounded in social,
economic, or political policy intended to shield the Government from tort liability,
particularly in light of the evidence of PCBs on the site. The Government argues that any
attempt to base liability on a lack of inspection of contractor work is barred by the
discretionary function exception.51
Indeed, reliance on civilian contractors to perform cleanup is a policy
decision, and “the term ‘Federal agency’ . . . does not include any contractor with the
United 	States.”52 	But 	there 	usually 	is 	some 	overlap 	between 	the 	Government’s
responsibilities and the work of civilian contractors. 	While the decision to delegate
responsibilities to a contractor is a discretionary function, it still is possible for the
Government 	to 	be 	responsible 	for 	its 	negligence 	with 	respect 	to 	any 	retained
responsibilities. For example, in Camozzi v. Roland/Miller & Hope Consulting Group, the
Government hired contractors to build a new postal facility.53 	The Ninth Circuit found
that the Government’s failure to discover the floor openings through which plaintiffs fell
was not a “political, social, [or] economic judgment of an agency exercising its regulatory
function.”54 	Rather, while the decision to delegate the responsibility to a contractor is a
51 Docket 256 at 13.
52 See 28 U.S.C. § 2671.
53 866 F.2d 287 (9th Cir. 1989).
54 Id. at 289.
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discretionary function, the “negligence of USPS in performing its retained safety functions
. . . involved no policy choices.”55 “Failure to inspect floors for uncovered and unguarded
openings, for example, was not the result of a policy choice by the particular employees or
agents involved. 	It simply was a failure to effectuate policy choices already made and
incorporated in the contracts.”56
Here, the Government dismissed the civilian contractors for sub-par work as
of 1996 and took responsibility for a “final report,” which was not produced until 2001.
The mere use of Government contractors in this instance does not absolve the Government
from its overall responsibility to remediate the site, a task it took on beginning in 1990.
After the various contractors quit, went bankrupt, or were fired, the Corp took on
responsibility for the report. 	Given the lack of documentation by the contractors, the
Government’s failure to inspect the site after the contractors departed was not a policy
choice.
C. 	1996 through 2001
It is unclear what, if any, activity occurred at NRS between 1996 and 2001.
The affidavit of Kenneth Andraschko indicates that as of 1996, “North River became
ineligible for the FUDS program and [the Army Corps] could no longer perform physical
work on the site. 	The Air Force had to resume responsibility for any remaining
environmental restoration.”57 	But the Air Force also was actively working to remediate
55 Id. at 290 (emphasis added).
56 Id.
57 Docket 232-10 at 5. 	Kenneth Andraschko was the program Manager and Supervisory
Environmental Engineer of the DERP-FUDS program for the Army Corp of Engineers in Alaska since July
2007.
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other installations in Alaska and, citing a lack of sufficient resources, opted to wait for the
Army Corp to complete its report, and to then evaluate what additional actions were
necessary for environmental restoration at the NRS.58 	So although the Army Corp of
Engineers apparently lost funding for the site in 1996, the Air Force opted to wait for a
report from the Corp, which it did not receive until 2000 or 2001, before taking over at the
site.
But the record contains a “Management Action Plan” dated November 7,
1997, which was prepared for the Air Force and Army Corp by an environmental
consulting company.59 	This report “identifies all known contaminated sites” and the
“environmental condition of property.”60 	The history of installation operations table
indicates that with respect to hazardous substance activities, although cleanup activities
occurred from 1982 to 1985, there was no activity between 1986 and 1995.61 Various maps
are included in the report, including one showing the “location of past hazardous
substances and petroleum activities,”62 one showing the current environmental condition
of the property,63 and one showing the Installation Restoration Program (IRP) sizes and
zones under investigation.64 	It purported to provide “a master schedule of planned and
anticipated activities to be performed throughout the duration of the Environmental
58 See Docket 232 at 27–28.
59 Docket 152-5.
60 Id. at 3.
61 Id. at 9.
62 Id. at 10.
63 Id. at 14.
64 Id. at 20. This map indicates that the majority of the White Alice site was considered as a single
“zone.”
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Restoration Program,” but “figure 5-1” detailing the schedule is not included in the
exhibit.65 The report indicated that it would be updated a minimum of once per year.66
The Court sees a number of problems with the Government’s reliance on the
policy argument during these five years. 	First, briefing indicates that the Army Corp of
Engineers started its “field confirmation investigation” of the prior demolition and cleanup
activities in 1999.67 Having lost funding in 1996, the Corp presumably was not performing
any physical cleanup during those three years. 	(Indeed, the 1997 report discussed above
suggests there was no environmental cleanup since 1985, possibly due to a lack of
recordkeeping by the contractors). Meanwhile, the Air Force opted to wait for a final report
from the Corp, which was not produced until 2001. 	Between 1996 and 2001, therefore,
neither the Army Corp of Engineers nor the Air Force apparently was taking any action at
all with respect to cleanup of the site, despite the general knowledge that PCBs had been
present, that two contractors had generally failed to perform adequate cleanup, and that a
1997 report existed regarding the status of the site.
D. 	Analysis
After the Army Corp of Engineers lost funding for the NRS, responsibility
was transferred from the Corp to the Air Force. But while the Corp continued to evaluate
the site until 1999, producing a report in 2001, the Air Force apparently was responsible
for the site as the landowner starting in 1996. During this period, the station was classified
65 Id. at 3, 25.
66 Id. at 5.
67 Docket 232 at 13.
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as “low risk” by the Air Force, which the Government argues was giving priority to other
“higher risk” sites. But when the Air Force investigated “the nature and extent of remaining
contamination at the site” to determine whether additional cleanup was needed, it restarted
cleanup in 2002 from the first step in the process (i.e., identification of “Areas of Concerns/
Designation of New Sites”) because “information pertaining to historical operations and
past waste-management practices at the installation was scarce.”68 The site previously had
been designated as a “medium risk.” 	The Court questions what policy was involved in
downgrading a “medium” risk site to a “low” risk site when there was little information
upon which to do so, and when there was no apparent reason to assume that the site had
improved, relative to other sites. In short, it does not appear that legitimate policy decisions
were involved in reducing the risk level of the site when only minimal information was
available to do so.
Moreover, in 2001, the Army Corps of Engineers found that the cleanup
actions in the 1990s “did not dispose of all fuel drums and miscellaneous debris scattered
in the vicinity of Unalakleet,” finding approximately 3,300 fuel drums that still required
disposal.69 	Despite this finding, the Corp provided a Final Remedial Action Report70 to
the Air Force in December 2001, with a cover letter from the NRS Project Manager
Douglas Wooten, that indicated that AECI (one of the contractors who did not complete
the work) had “concluded that the only known remaining contamination is mixed
68 Docket 232 at 16 (citing Docket 151-27 at 9).
69 Id. (citing Docket 152-18 at 4).
70 Identified by Doug Wooten as the Corps’ “official final document.” Docket 152-9 at 2.
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petroleum products in the soil” near a former underground storage tank.”71 	The
Government’s brief added that “no further PCB contamination was detected,”72 which is a
broad interpretation of the report cited.73 The Government’s statement that no further PCB
was detected fails to acknowledge that the information was based on a “pre-draft” of the
“Summary of Remaining Waste” section of the report drafted by AECI, which went out of
business before finishing the job.74 The failure to detect contamination does not rule out
its presence, and the draft report from which the Government draws this misleading
conclusion was not a final report. Moreover, it is unclear if this report encompassed only
“Zone 1,” or the wider area around the White Alice site where the hotspot was located.
At best, neither the Corp nor the Air Force knew what risk level to assign to
the NRS, as they were back to step one of the process over twenty years after the site closed,
and a decade after first receiving funding for cleanup. 	A December 2002 email from
Douglas Wooten stating that the CERCLA cleanup process for the NRS was still a few
years from completion because “other sites with higher priorities (higher risk) have taken
precedence,”75 does not support the Government’s “competing policy” argument given the
scarcity of information about the site’s contamination status. An “unknown risk” is not a
“low risk.” Wooten’s email provides no other information regarding the higher risk sites.
In an attempt to justify the passage of time, the Government explained at oral
argument that “an installation could have multiple contaminated sites,” which was true of
71 Id. (emphasis added).
72 Docket 232 at 13–14; see also Docket 152-9, Docket 152-10.
73 See Docket 152-8 at 11–12.
74 Id. at 12.
75 Docket 152-13 at 3.
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the more than 200-acre site at issue here.76 Prioritization was necessary not only as to over
500 installations, but of cleanup for sites within each installation. 	The Government
described 	environmental 	remediation 	as 	an 	“iterative” 	process,77 	which 	continually
implicates 	policy 	concerns 	during 	the 	four 	steps 	of 	environmental 	remediation:
(1) investigation 	of 	the 	installation 	for 	contamination; 	(2) 	cleanup; 	(3) 	assessing
effectiveness 	of 	cleanup; 	(4) 	reassessment 	to 	identify 	any 	further 	sources 	of
contamination.78 	The implication is that just because the Government had not yet
discovered the hotspot in 2003, the “iterative process” was not complete, and therefore the
Government could not be faulted for not cleaning it up sooner. While this argument makes
the NRS sound like a large site, the 1997 report describes it as a “relatively small
installation” and designated only one “zone.”79 However, the hotspot was located outside
of this zone, though still on Government property.80
With respect to the hotspot, Plaintiff argues that it sat in “plain view
throughout [the] 1990’s,” and that one Government employee testified that upon being
guided to the spot by Plaintiff in 2003, he immediately recognized the smell as that of a
solvent containing PCB.81 But the Government’s reply brief disputes that the hotspot was
76 There is no transcript of the February 1, 2023, oral argument, but the Court has listened to the
recording.
77 The Court understands an “iterative process” in the context of environmental remediation to be
a cycle of steps which are repeated until the desired result is achieved.
78 The Court asked for more information regarding these four steps during oral argument. Counsel
for the Government indicated that the four steps were discussed in the Rafferty Declaration filed with the
Government’s motion. 	But the Declaration of Michael Rafferty does not address these four steps of
remediation. Docket 232-8.
79 Docket 152-5 at 23.
80 See Docket 152-14 at 4; Docket 177-42 at 8.
81 Docket 252 at 7, 10.
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in “plain view,” and suggests that Plaintiff’s assertion that it was in “plain view” is based
on her misunderstanding of the location of the PCB hotspot in relation to the Equipment
Maintenance Shop.82 According to various exhibits, including maps, the spot was located
not far from the road.83
The Government argues that the “November 1991 Army Corps report . . .
makes no reference to a PCB hot spot.”84 But earlier, in the Government’s opening brief,
it conceded that the Army Corp performed “field reconnaissance” between 1985 and 1990,
where contractors collected samples to identify areas of potential contamination, and that
these 	samples 	“found 	evidence 	of 	petroleum 	contamination 	and 	potentially 	PCB
contamination.”85 It was the findings based on this site assessment that brought the NRS
formally within the scope of DERP-FUDS, making the Army Corp the lead agency for
cleanup.86 	The suggestion that the report made no reference to a PCB “hotspot,” while
technically correct, is misleading. 	Section 1.3 of the 1991 report entitled “Site Use
History” clearly states that in 1982 the Air Force sent a team to “clean up and remove all
PCB-contaminated electrical transformers. 	In 1984, the Air Force returned to remove
PCB-contaminated soils.”87 	But the 1987 field sampling still identified contaminants in
the soil “throughout the site,” including PCBs “from both ends of the Quonset hut garage
82 Docket 256 at 8.
83 See, for example, Docket 177-42 at 8.
84 Docket 256 at 8 (citing Docket 151-25 at 19 (Environmental Assessment and Finding of No
Significant Impact, North River White Alice Communication Site Unalakleet, Alaska, November 1991)).
85 Docket 232 at 5 (citing Docket 151-25 at 6–7).
86 Id.
87 Docket 151-25.
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at 320 ppb, and in the sample collected at the front door to the composite building at 600
ppb.”88
Finally, the Government’s brief suggests that the hotspot “may have been
used for drum storage.”89 	But the December 2004 report entitled “Action Memorandum
Time-Critical Removal” is less equivocal, stating that “PCB-containing oils and fluids
were stored in drums at the North River RRS near the source area. 	Historical aerial
photographs also show this area being used for drum storage. . . . It has been determined
that spills would have occurred prior to 1984, when all identifiable hazardous materials
were removed from the site.”90 Historical photos showing drum storage that predate 1984
suggest 	that 	the 	hotspot 	was ground 	the Government 	had 	already 	covered 	in 	the
remediation process.
The location of the hotspot is relevant to the policy argument. If it was close
to one of the areas where PCB previously was identified, the Government’s argument that
more pressing matters prevailed becomes less persuasive. If the spot is located elsewhere,
it raises questions regarding how the spot was overlooked, and what else might have been
missed. 	The Government took on the task of cleaning up the NRS, which it commenced
in late 1990 or 1991. 	At this point, the Court is not convinced that the Government’s
conduct in failing to discover the hotspot on its property was the result of purely policy
decisions.91 	Rather, this matter may be more akin to those cases where the Government
88 Docket 151-25 at 13.
89 Docket 232 at 17.
90 Docket 152-20 at 5.
91 Indeed, would it have been discovered at all were it not for Plaintiff bringing it to the Air Force’s
attention?
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has failed to effectuate policy choices already made, such as in Camozzi, supra, and
Oberson v. U.S. Dep’t of Agric., Forest Serv.92
In Oberson, injured snowmobilers brought an FTCA action against the U.S.
Forest Service for negligently failing to correct or warn of a dangerous condition on the
snowmobile trail where a snowmobiler was injured. 	The Ninth Circuit agreed with the
district court’s opinion that the Forest Service’s decisions whether to and how to warrant
the trails were grounded in policy considerations, but once the decision to warrant the trails
was made, the Service had a duty to accomplish that task with reasonable care.93 	After
raising the speed limit from 35 to 45 mph, the Service’s failure to warn of a hazard that
arose as a result of the increase in speed limit was not the result of a decision grounded in
public policy or of a choice among competing policy considerations. The court concluded
that “the Forest Service’s failure to correct or warn of this hazard was not the type of
discretionary decision that is shielded from tort liability.”94 	Similarly, having begun the
remediation process, and apparently already having had the opportunity to identify a
significant hotspot requiring remediation, the delay that occurred between 1990 and 2003
may not have been the result of policy choices subject to the discretionary function
exception.
92 514 F.3d 989, 996 (9th Cir. 2008).
93 Id.
94 Id.
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III. 	CONCLUSION
The objection that a federal court lacks subject-matter jurisdiction may be
raised by a party, or by a court on its own initiative, at any stage in the litigation, even after
trial and the entry of judgment.95 	“Whenever it appears by suggestion of the parties or
otherwise that the court lacks jurisdiction of the subject matter, the court shall dismiss the
action.”96
Although Plaintiff bears the initial burden 	to establish subject matter
jurisdiction 	under 	the 	FTCA, 	it 	is the 	Government’s 	burden 	to 	establish 	that 	the
discretionary function exception applies.97 	When the jurisdictional motion “involv[es]
factual issues which also go to the merits,” a court should employ the standard applicable
to a motion for summary judgment because “resolution of [those] jurisdictional facts is
akin to a decision on the merits.”98 In that posture, the moving party “should prevail only
if the material jurisdictional facts are not in dispute and the moving party is entitled to
prevail as a matter of law. 	Unless that standard is met, the jurisdictional facts must be
determined at trial by the trier of fact.”99
Here, the parties do not seem to even agree on the location of the hotspot
with respect to the buildings on the White Alice site. The Government’s argument relies
95 Arbaugh v. Y&H Corp., 546 U.S. 500, 506, 126 S. Ct. 1235, 1240, 163 L. Ed. 2d 1097 (2006)
(citing Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(b)(1)).
96 Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(h)(3).
97 Oberson v. U.S. Dep’t of Agric., 514 F.3d 989, 997 (9th Cir. 2008).
98 Augustine v. United States, 704 F.2d 1074, 1077 (9th Cir. 1983).
99 Augustine, 704 F.2d at 1077 (“[W]here the jurisdictional issue and the substantive issue are so
intertwined that the question of jurisdiction is dependent on factual issues going to the merits, the
jurisdictional determination should await a determination of the relevant facts on either a motion going to
the merits or at trial.”).
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on the iterative process and policy decisions which it alleges caused justifiable delays in
discovery of the hotspot but, at this juncture, the Court is not convinced that the
discretionary function exception applies. 	Moreover, if uncertainty exists as to the
Government’s knowledge of the hazard, “Plaintiffs’ complaint cannot be dismissed at this
stage, and the question of jurisdiction instead must await a determination on the merits.”100
Given the foregoing, Defendant’s Motion to Dismiss for Lack of Subject
Matter Jurisdiction is DENIED without prejudice. 	Upon further factfinding, the Court
reserves the right to revisit the discretionary function exception. 	However, at this stage,
the Government has not met its burden.
The stay previously entered at Docket 262 is hereby lifted. This matter shall
now proceed in due course.
IT IS SO ORDERED this 15th day of March, 2023, at Anchorage, Alaska.
/s/ Ralph R. Beistline
RALPH R. BEISTLINE
Senior United States District Judge
100 See Young v. United States, 769 F.3d 1047, 1052–53 (9th Cir. 2014) (“[T]he question whether
the Park Service knew or should have known of the hazard created by the transformer is a disputed issue of
jurisdictional fact that is ‘so intertwined’ with the substantive dispute that resolution of the former depends,
at least in part, on resolution of the latter.”).
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